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Standards have played a long and important role in the development of the electronic industry. The creation of standards that address everything from safety issues to intermateability of related equipment have enabled the industry to offer reliable, equipment with assured compatibility produced by a global array of suppliers. The establishment of standardized equipment platforms has allowed the introduction of reference designs that can greatly accelerate the new product development process.
Connectors that conform to a particular standard assure the designer and user of intermateability, a key requirement in an industry that produces a wide variety of interconnected equipment. Many standards address both electrical and mechanical compatibility to a specified limit, at the system level.
Formal organizations such as IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) and VITA (formerly VME International Trade Association) have a long-established record of creating industry standards that have shaped the emerging market. More recently, special interest groups (SIGs) and other industry consortia have become particularly effective in promoting system architectures, which include the interconnects. Organizations such as PCI Industrial Computer Manufacturers Group (PICMG) focus on a particular class of product. PICMG is an example of a particularly effective consortium of more than 450 companies that collaboratively develop specifications that adapt PCI protocol to emerging market requirements.
From the original equipment manufacturers’ (OEM) perspective, designing a new product around an established specification assures system compatibility and a potentially reduced design cycle. Standards groups often sponsor “plugfests” where equipment manufacturers can verify compliance to the specification. Components defined in the specification, including connectors, are often tooled by a wide variety of manufacturers, which assures multiple sources and competitive prices. Designing a system around a standard platform also has its drawbacks. In some cases, the standards development process has taken years to finalize. By the time the standard is released, the technology may have become obsolete making the manufacturer vulnerable to more advanced systems. Adopting an architecture based on a standard also opens the potential for the development of an aftermarket that offers compatible components such as daughtercards. The OEM may lose control of this valuable long-term source of revenue.
Connector manufacturers that choose to tool an industry-standard connector can anticipate the rapid development of a large potential market. The costly decision to tool a new connector is tempered by this confidence. The downside is that a widely adopted standard quickly attracts a host of low-cost manufacturers that are not burdened with the development costs of the interface. Many standards organizations require that the originator of a proposed connector license the ability to tool the product at a reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) fee. Potentially valuable intellectual property is made available to any competitor in the market. A standard connector can quickly evolve to commodity product pricing, which reduces the profit margin. Connectors that are designed around an industry standard are typically tooled for high volume and produced in low-cost-of-labor regions of the world. Additionally, there is risk associated with being on the front end of a new standardized interface. If the final standard is not widely accepted in the industry, the specified interface may quickly become obsolete. Sockets that were developed to accept bubble memory devices proved to be a loss to manufacturers that chose to develop and tool this unique interface.
Design of equipment utilizing industry standards continues to grow as price and time-to-market pressures demand a more-efficient design process and the use of cost-effective components.
There are a large number of organizations that are currently active in introducing standards that include connectors. Beyond the formal organizations such as IEEE, and VITA, consortiums and special interest groups are generating new standards at a rapid pace. Recognizing the size of this expanding universe of standards, this report will focus on a select group of key organizations and standards as examples of the influence they are having on the electronic connector market. Prior to that discussion, however, several basic issues of standardization and the standardization process will be reviewed.
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The input-output or I/O devices provide the means of communication between the computer and the user. The input and output devices are the hardware components that allow the user to input data and instructions into the computer and to receive the processed data. The data and instructions are given to the computer through input device. The computer processes the data according to the given instructions and output is received onto the output device or it is stored permanently on the storage device.
Various types of input/output devices are available used for different types of applications. The I/O devices are slower as compare to the speed of CPU and primary storage. It is because the speed of I/O devices depends upon the mechanical movement of the components of the devices. It is impossible that the I/O devices and the CPU and primary storage have the same speed.
Input and Input Devices
Input is any data or instructions entered into the computer in the form of signals. The input into the computer can be entered:
Through keyboard (by typing characters).
By selecting commands (icons) on the screen and then clicking with mouse.
By pressing finger on a touch screen.
By speaking into a microphone.
By sending image through digital camera.
By scanning data printed on paper through scanner etc.
Therefore, the devices that are used to enter data and instructions or commands into the computer are called input devices or units. The input devices are the eyes and ears of computers. In old computers the punched card readers, paper tape readers were used as input devices. Now-a-days, the commonly used input devices are:
It must be noted that floppy drives, hard disks and CD drives are used for both input and output devices. Now-a-days, the most popular input devices are keybaord and mouse. The other input devices are used for special purposes.
Output and Output Devices
The processed input data into a useful form is called output when input data is processed, computer generates several types of output, depending upon the hardware and software used and the requirements of the user. The user use output on a screen, prints it on the printer or hear it through speakers or head sets.
Therefore, output is normally classifieds as:
Softcopy Output
The output received on the display screen or in the audio or video form is called softcopy output. This kind of output is not tangible and can not the touched. The most popular and commonly used softcopy output device is display screen
Hardcopy Output
The output printed on the paper is called hardcopy. The printers and plotters devices are used for this purpose.
Sound Output
The output received into the form of sound is called sound output. The speakers are most commonly used to receive the sound output.
An output device is a hardware component used to get output from the computer. A number of output devices are available. The commonly used output devices include display device (Monitor), printer, speaker and headset, fax machine etc.
The keyboard is the most commonly used input device. It is used to feed data and instructions into a computer. It is similar to an electric typewriter. A keyboard contains keys for each alphabetic characters, digits and special characters. The data and instructions are feed into the computer by pressing the related keys on the keyboard. The keyboard having some additional keys for specific functions. Keyboard used with personal computer typically have from 101 to 105 keys.
On laptop and many other handheld computers, the keyboard is built into the top of the system unit. Usually, these keyboards are smaller in size and have fewer keys such as 85 keys.
Some old type computers have built-in keyboards. Now-a-days, the computer has a separate keyboard. It is easily plugged in computer. A keyboard is connected to the serial or USB port on the system unit. A standard computer keyboard is also referred to as QWERTY keyboard. This name represents the first left most letters on the top alphabetic line of the keyboard spell. Some advanced keyboards do not require the cable to connect with the cable. They enter data into the computer through wireless technologies such as radio waves or infrared light waves. These type of keyboards are known as cordless or wireless keyboards.
Division of Keyboard
A keyboard may be divided into four area. There are:
Alphanumeric keypad or typewriter area.
Numeric keypad.
Screen Navigation keys.
Editing keys.
Function keypad.
1. Alphanumeric Keypad
This area is like a typewrite, it is because this area of keyboard is referred to as Typewriter Area. The user uses this area to enter general information into the computer. Typists usually use this area of keyboard. This area consists of:
Alphabetic character keys “A” to “Z” and lower case letters “a” to “z”.
Numeric keys “0″ to “9″.
Many other special keys like Spacebar, Enter key, Ctrl key etc.
2. Numeric Keypad
A set of numeric keys and arithmetic operator keys on the right of keyboard that are similar to calculator keys is referred to as Numeric Keypad. It also has an extra Enter key and Num Lock key. The Num Lock key is used to activate or deactivate the numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is mostly used for numeric data entry.
3. Screen Navigation Keys
The keys that are normally used in word processor or other application programs to move cursor into the document on the screen are referred to as navigation keys. The most important navigation keys are:
Arrow Keys
Used to move the cursor left, right, up and down on the screen. These are also referred to as cursor keys.
Page Up Key
Used to move the cursor one page up of document on the screen.
Page Down Key
Used to move the cursor one page down of document on the screen.
End Key
Used to move the cursor to the end of line or to end of screen or document.
Home Key
Used to move the cursor to the top left of screen on beginning of document.
4. Editing Keys
The keys that are normally used in word processor or other application programs for editing (modifying) the document are referred to as editing keys. The most important editing keys are:
Delete Key
Used to delete the characters towards the right of cursor position.
Backspace Key
Used to delete the characters from the current cursor position toward left.
Enter Key
Used to insert new line or paragraph into text editing programs. It is also used to enter selected command into the computer.
Tab Key
Used to insert a tab.
Caps Lock Key
Used to change lowercase letters mode to uppercase and vice versa.
Insert Key
Used to change insert mode to overwrite mode and vice versa.
5. Function Keys
There are 10 or 12 function keys on the top of keyboard that are labeled as F1, F2,…….. F12. These keys are referred to as Function Keys. These are used to perform special functions. The function of each key depends upon the software being used on the computer. The designer of the software assigns these keys in his software as shortcut commands or keys to perform specific task. For example, in most software the function key F1 is used to get online help about the software running on the computer.
Many keyboards also have a Windows Key. When Windows key is presses, Start Menu of Windows is displayed.
The advanced keyboards also include buttons that allow the user to access the computer’s CD or DVD drive. Adjust speaker volume, open an e-mail program, start a web browser and search the Internet. Some keyboards also provide the USB ports used to plug the USB device directly to the keyboard instead of system unit.
Trojan horses are a huge security threat. A Trojan is a program that enters your computer undetected, giving the attacker who planted the Trojan unrestricted access to the data stored on your computer. Trojans can transmit credit card information and other confidential data in the background. Trojans are often not caught by virus scanning engines, because these are focused on viruses, not Trojans. Catching such threats would require the use of a Trojan scanner (a.k.a Trojan cleaner, Trojan remover, anti-Trojan).
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